chapter 9 questions

Group Processes

1. What is a group, 

a group is 2 or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other

what is the typical size of most groups 

2-6 

and 

why do group explain two reasons why do group members tend to be homogenous?

1. tend to attract similar peeps
2. tend to operate in ways that encourage similarity in members

2. What are roles and what function do they serve in social groups. What are two possible costs to social roles?

2 possible costs to social roles:

1. People can get so far into a role that their personal identities get lost
   
2. People can lose their personalities
   

 Be sure you understand these costs as they are evident in the Stanford Prison Experiment and in the example of gender roles.

As opposed to norms which specify how ALL group members should act
The roles that people assume in groups, and in society at large, are powerful determinants of their feelings, behavior, and personality
*Stanford prison experiment & gender roles during WWII, followed by feminist movement

3. What is group cohesiveness?
Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between members
What are its benefits and costs for the group?
Benefits and costs for the group:

• Doing well on a task causes the group to become more cohesive, but does cohesiveness cause a group to perform well?
  
• Yes, if the task requires close cooperation between group members
  
• However, sometimes cohesiveness can get in the way of optimal performance, if maintaining good relations among group members becomes more important than finding good solutions to a problem

4. What is social facilitation?
The tendency for people to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when they are in the presence of other and their individual performance can be evaluated
How does the presence of others affect performance on simple and difficult tasks?

• Many studies have found that people and animals do worse in the presence of others when the task is difficult (this is the opposite of the findings for when the task is easy)

Zajonc- Cockroach study: found presence of other members of your species speeds up performance on simple tasks
Understand the three theories about why the presence of others causes arousal.
3 theories on why the presence of others causes arousal:

1. - mere presence: > alertness>arousal (blindfolded audience)
   
2. -evaluation apprehension:>arousal 
   
3. -distraction >divided attention>conflict>arousal
   

more detail:

1. The presence of other people makes us more alert and this alertness or vigilance causes mild arousal.--crowd effect
   
2. People are not cockroaches and are often concerned about how other people are evaluating them. This is the concern of being judged (evaluation apprehension), when other people can see how you are doing, the stakes are raised: you feel like the other people are evaluating you and will feel embarrassed if you do poorly and pleased if you do well.
   
3. People are distracting. Distraction will put is in a state of conflict because it is difficult to pay attention to two things at the same time, so this divided attention causes arousal. Nonsocial sources of distraction, such as a flashing light, cause the same kinds of social facilitation effects as the presence of other people

5. What is social loafing, and why does it occur? 

• The tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated.
  
  reduction of individul effort when working with others on an additive task
  group product is sum of indistinguishable individual contributions
  
  
• Occurs in groups where individual efforts CANNOT be distinguished

How does the setting in which social loafing occurs differ from the setting in which social facilitation occurs?

• - social loading - additive tasks, not identifiable, reduce effect
  
• -social facilitation - presence of others, enhances dominant effect

• 6. What are some gender and cultural differences in the occurrence of social loafing?

Gender differences in social loafing:
The tendency to loaf is found to be stronger in men than in women.
Women tend to be higher than men in relational interdependence, which is the tendency to focus on and care about personal relationships with other individuals.
Cultural differences in social loafing:
the tendency to loaf is stronger in Western cultures than in Asian cultures. Asians are more likely to have an interdependent view of the self, which is a way of defining oneself in terms of relationships to other people, which may reduce the tendency toward social loafing when in groups
Women and members of Asian cultures to engage in social loafing when in groups; they are just less likely to do so than men or members of Western cultures
Why might these differences occur?
 

7. What is deindividuation, and what effects does it have on behavior?
Deindividuation-The loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people can’t be identified (such as when they are in a crowd)., leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts
Zimbardo: conditions of deindividuation

• being in a group
  
• arousal
  
• anonymity
  
• diffused responsibility
  

What are two explanations for why deindividuation leads to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts?
2 explanations for why Deindividuation leads to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts:
Deindividuation makes people feel less accountable for their actions because it reduces the likelihood that any individual will be singled out and blamed
 

8. Under what conditions are groups likely to make better decisions than individuals?
Groups are likely to make better decisions than individuals when:

• The most talented member can convince the others that he or she is right, which is not always easy, given that many of us bear a strong resemblance to mules when it comes to admitting we are wrong
• ~~~

9. Understand how failure to share unique information affects group decision making. What is transactive memory, and how can this can foster the superior performance of groups?
1
Failure to share unique information affects group decision making:
The tendency for groups to focus on what its members already know in common

10. What is groupthink? What are its antecedents, symptoms, and consequences? How can groupthink be avoided?

1 Antecedents of groupthink: 

• fear of failure
  
• recent failure
  
• ambiguous situation
  
• limited info
  

symptoms of groupthink: when more are present, more likely to be groupthink, more likely to make bad decision

• illusion of invulnerability
  
• close mindedness
  
• self censorship
  
• direct pressure
  
• mind guarding
  
• illusion of unanimity
  
• ?group cohesivness?
  
• ?
  

to avoid groupthink:

• open environment
  
• avoid insulation
  
• all be critical evaluators
  
• authority avoid being directive
  

11. How does group discussion affect attitudes that are initially risky or initially cautious? What are the “persuasive arguments” and “social comparison” interpretations of group polarization?
1 answer 

12. What types of leadership style are most effective?
1 Task oriented and relationship oriented 

13. Contrast the great person theory with the contingency theory of leadership. What are the two types of leaders, according to the contingency theory?
1 Contingency Theory
2 types of leaders
1.relationship oriented

• best when control is moderate
  
• more concentrated on workers feelings etc
  

2.task oriented

• get the job done
  
• best when control is low or high 
  

14. What is a social dilemma? Understand these 3 types of dilemmas (use examples to help you understand these): the prisoner's dilemma, public goods dilemma, and the commons dilemma.
1 answer ~~~

15. What are the effects of using threats while playing mixed-motive games? How/when does communication facilitate cooperation?
1 answer ~~

15. What is an integrative solution in negotiations?

~~~

Chapter 10 questions

Chapter 10 Questions: Interpersonal Attraction: From First Impressions to Close Relationships

1.What role does “propinquity” play in attraction? Note the difference between physical and functional distance. Why does the propinquity effect occur?

• propinquity is proximity is the finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends
• physical???
• functional????
• propinquity effect occurs when they see each other more - are more likely to be friends. 

2.What role does similarity play in attraction?

answer

For what kinds of attributes does similarity seem to be important?

attributes:

• interests
• attitudes
• values
• background
• personality

What are 3 reasons why we like people whose beliefs and characteristics are similar to our own?

1. tend to think those who are similar to us will like us and more likely to initiate the relationship
2. similar people validate our own characteristics and beliefs
3. we make negative inferences on people who disagree with us on important issues.

similarity matters - if you dont want commit- you'll go for someone different that you - fling

-opposites attract

3.What is reciprocal liking, and why does it matter for attraction?

just knowing that someone likes us fuels our attraction to that person. liking is so powerful that it can even make up for the absence of similarity.

How is the self-fulfilling prophecy involved in this effect?
if someone believes they are liked by the other person - they are more likely to agree with that person more and be more friendly. 

(IV: Person A is told Person B likes or dislikes them

experiment: put in a room to discuss a topic

DV: Person A's behavior toward B)

When A believed they were liked by B, they divulged more info about themselves, disagreed less and were friendlier. 

4.Note that physical attractiveness is a major determinant of liking in studies of first impressions. Is there a sex difference in the importance of physical attractiveness in a partner?
no. (p 313)

some studies say men place more importance on it - but it is probably that men are more likely to say that it matters more than women are. 

In simply behavior studies - they were equal

5.Is there agreement across cultures in what is considered physically attractive?

yes

Why might the “statistically average” face be seen as more attractive than individual faces?

because it has lost some of the atypical or unfamiliar variation of an individual face. People like typical and familiar faces

6.What is the underlying variable that links attractiveness, propinquity, and similarity?

"the crucial variable that explains interpersonal attraction may actually be familiarity"

we prefer familiar and safe to unfamiliar and potentially dangerous

7.Understand the “what is beautiful is good” stereotype. How might this stereotype produce a self-fulfilling prophecy?
The way we treat [people affects how they behave and ultimately how they perceive themselves.  The more beautiful, the more attention. p 318

8.What is social exchange theory?

the idea that peoples feelings about a relationship depend on their perception of the relationship...

it holds that how people feel (+ or -) about their relationships will depend on :

• their perception of the rewards they receive from the relationship
  
• their perception of the costs they incur from the relationship
  
• their perception of the what kind of relationship they deserve and the probability that they could have a better relationship with someone else

'getting more bang for your (emotional) buck'  

According to this theory, what are the factors that determine how people feel about their relationships?

how much they feel they put in to and get out of relationship , see above

9.What is equity theory? According to this theory, how do partners in a relationship respond when they are over- or under-benefited in a relationship?
idea that people are happiest when rewards and costs experienced and contributions made by both parties are roughly equal.   ---  if under or over - feel uneasy and try to restore equity

The over-benefited person is usually more uncomfortable and feels guilty

10.Distinguish between “passionate” and “companionate” types of love.

• Companionate :intimacy and affection felt when we care deeply for a person but do not experience passion or arousal in other's presence - Gma, Gpa Chinese value more
  
• Passionate:intense longing we feel accompanied by physiological arousal;when our love is reciprocated, we feel great fulfillment and ecstasy, if not, we feel sadness and despair., romeo and juliet --- Americans value more  (present in 147 of 166 cultures studied in an anthropological study)
• Taita of kenya - value both equally

 In the section on “culture and love”, pay attention to the section on how romantic love is defined and experienced differently in individualistic and collectivistic cultures.

• more passionate - americans more companionate-chinese  equal - kenya peoples
• how love is experienced differently in different cultures, review page 324 
• Jung - korean - strong connection - can be -
• Gen qing - china - fixing bike=love
• amae- japan - dependent love
• 
  

11.Understand evolutionary biology’s explanation of the experience of romantic love. Are there differences between men and women in the characteristics involved in mate selection and the different strategies of men and women in romantic relationships? What evidence supports sociobiological theory? What are some alternative explanations?

answer

12.What are the key assumptions of attachment theory? 

What we learn as kids becomes our working model for what relationships are like

What are the three attachment styles, and how do they differ? 

-attachment style generally comes from mother-strain theory (moms leave child in room to test how they react)
1)secure attachment-60% of children

• -child is uneasy when mom leaves room but is stable when mom comes back and seeks comfort from mom
  

2) avoidant attachment

• -generally doesn't care if mom is there or not
  

3) anxious/ambivalent

• -child is extremely upset when mom leaves and inconsolable to a certain degree when mom returns-difficult to comfort

*there is mixed support for gender differences in this theory

How is relationship longevity and satisfaction affected by partners’ attachment styles? 

easier and better for those with secure, then avoidant, then anxious 

Is a mix of attachment styles (e.g., one partner in a relationship has an anxious style; the other has an avoidant style) good for relationships? 

anxious woman with avoidant man works well

usually tho, its bad

Can attachment styles change over time?
yes. with practice :) I should date more. 

13.Understand Rusbult’s “investment model” of relationships. Note its similarity to social exchange theory, with the addition of the “investment” concept and prediction of “commitment”.

things that predict commitment , correlations from Vanlange study

• Investment- .23 kids, home, time
  
• Satisfaction .58
  
• Alternatives -.23 more alternativesm less committed

14.How do concerns about equity differ depending on whether partners are involved in a communal or exchange relationship? (Note that this idea will be discussed in class under the “social norm” approach theory).
equity is more concerned on needing to be paid back, feeling expoited for favors, and keeping track of who is contributing

communal is just being happy being friends. 

15.In the section on “ending intimate relationships”, understand 

a) Rusbult’s four types of behavior that occur in troubled relationships

1. actively harming, destructive behavior
2. passively allowing to deteriorate, destructive
3. actively trying to improve relationship, constructive
4. positively remaining loyal, constructive

 b) “fatal attractions.” 

• the very qualities that were initially attractive became the very reasons why it ended

[You’ll probably be interested in this whole section for your own personal benefit, but for testing purposes I’ll only focus on these 2 parts of the section!]
answer

Chapter 11 questions

Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help?

1. What is the main goal or perspective of evolutionary psychology? 

to favor genes that promote survival of the individual 

What are the three factors that explain altruism, according to evolutionary theory?

1. kin selection
2. norm of reciprocity : if i help you, in future, you'll help me
3. ability to follow and learn social norms

2. What does social exchange theory say about helping? 

its to max our rewards and min are costs 

helping can be rewarding -

• investment in future
• retain mood
• increase mood
• social approval 
• self worth

How is this theory different from evolutionary psychology in its explanation of altruism? 

doesn't trace desire to genetics or assume that desire is genetics based

Be able to recognize examples of rewards and costs associated with helping behaviors.
costs:

• physical harm
• time
• emarassment

People help when benefits outweigh costs

3. What is empathy, 

ability to miszapatos

~~~

and what is the empathy-altruism hypothesis? 

idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help, for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain -- homeless person

Understand the study by Toi & Batson (1982) described on pp. 349-350 of the text (be sure to understand how the researchers manipulate empathy and pit empathy against a factor designed to manipulate the cost of not helping). Note how some researchers have debated whether empathy-driven helping is truly altruistic or egoistic.

hi empathy - help no matter what the cost- think about how she feels 

lo empathy - help more if you will see her in class- be objective

REVIEW:

3 basic motives for prosocial

1. evolutionary  psychology : instinctive to promote welfare of those genetically similar to us
2. social exchange theory: rewards outweigh costs, helping is in self interest
3. empathy altruism hypothesis: under some conditions, empathy promotes selfless giving

4. Define altruistic personality. 

Qualities that cause an individual to help others in a wide variety of situations

Indicate the limits to predicting helpfulness on the basis of personality and indicate what else we need to know in order to predict how helpful someone will be.

need to also look at pressures, gender, culture, and mood

5. What is the relationship between gender and forms of prosocial behavior? 

Why might males be more likely to help in some situations while females are more likely to help in others? 

men more likely to be heroic, chivalrous, women more likely to help in long term situation (taking to doctor)

How does culture affect helping of ingroup versus outgroup members? 

most are more likely to help ingroup

more firmly drawn in interdependent (eastern) societies- less likley to help outgroup

How do cultural values affect prosocial behavior?
answer

6. How does mood affect helping? Why might both a good mood and a bad mood result in helping behavior? 

feel good do good

Understand the “negative state-relief” hypothesis.

feel bad do good 

7. Why, according to the urban-overload hypothesis, are people in rural environments more helpful than people in urban environments?

theory of people living in cities are constantly being bombarded with stimulation - they keep to themselves to avoid being overwhelmed

How does residential mobility affect the tendency to engage in prosocial behavior?

people who have lived in one place for a while feel more is at stake for them in their community - more likely to help  - this could be why city folk dont help as much , because them move more

8. What is the bystander effect? 

more bystanders = less likely to feel need to help

Understand the “seizure” experiment by Latané & Darley (1970), which will also be discussed in lecture.
Darley and Latane
Siezure

• IV alone or not
  
• DV: who helps within 60 seconds
  
• alone: 85%, 100% by 3 min
  
• +1 62%, 82% by 6 min
  
• +4 31%, 61% by 6
  

9. Understand the steps in the bystander intervention decision tree. What are the factors or processes that may lead to nonintervention at each step in the decision tree? I.e., what might interfere with intervening at each step?

1 PAGE 361

1. notice:distracted, in hurry
2. 911;pluralistic ignorance, calm faces
   
3. assume R;diffusion of R, bystander effect
   
4. Know how to help;lack of knowledge (of CPR etc) cant help
   
5. implement decision; danger to self, legal concern etc

10. Related to #9, be sure you understand the concepts of 

• pluralistic ignorance:
  Gillian is sitting in a crowded coffee shop when she hears the squeal of brakes and the crash of metal-on-metal, She looks around and notices that all the other customers remain engrossed in their conversations. Because these cool and calm responses _____, Gillian will be _______
  increase pluralistic ignorance; less likely to assume it’s an emergency situation
•  diffusion of responsibility: when through bystander or something else, you dont think its your place or responsibilty to help
  

, and why these factors decrease helping behavior.
1 answer

11. How does the type of relationship one is involved in (communal or exchange) affect helping? Under what conditions might helping a friend threaten one’s self-esteem and reduce helping?
 communal - primary concern is welfare of other - parent-child

exchange :equity concerns

less likely to help a friend - to see them succeed more than you - when the area is more important to you, vital to your self esteem 

12. How might prosocial behavior be increased by applying lessons learned in ch. 11?

call out name

educate

positive psych:L

 How might the overjustification effect limit intrinsic motivation for helping in required community service program?

if they volunteer b/c they have to - less likely to do in future

Psyc 360, November 13

some are out of order...

Notes: 10/29 to 11/12
Social loafing
reduction of individul effort when working with others on an additive task
group product is sum of indistinguishable individual contributions

ringelman:agricultural experimenter

rope tugging task

• IV:increase size of group
• DV: kg/person pulled
• 1 person : 63kg
• 3 persons: 160 (should do 189, 85% capacity)
• 8 people 248 kg (should do 500ish, 49% capacity)

Shouting study ~~~

2. Social Facilitation:~~~

Rusbult Investnebt theory:~~~

• things that predict commitment , correlations from Vanlange study

1. Investment- .23 kids, home, time
2. Satisfaction .58
3. Alternatives -.23 more alternativesm less committed

Darley and Latane

Siezure

• IV alone or not
• DV: who helps within 60 seconds
• alone: 85%, 100% by 3 min
• +1 62 82 by 6 min
• +4 31 61 by 6

attachment theories

1. secure
2. avoidant
3. anxious

commons something ~~~ will continue to give if people dont take too much from common pool (ie food pantry)

10/29
groups recap

- social loading - additive tasks, not identifiable, reduce effect
-social facilitation - presence of others, enhances dominant effec


3 theories
- mere presence: > alertness>arousal (blindfolded audience)
-evaluation apprehension:>arousal
-distraction >divided attention>conflict>arousal


effects of groups on individual behavior
-non performance behavior


Deindividuation losing oneself in a group, such that inner restraints are loosened

• --looting/rioting
• --fangirls
• --dancing at parties

Zimbardo: conditions of deindividuation

1. being in a group
2. arousal
3. anonymity
   
4. diffused responsibility

Diener: Trick or treating research

• IV: kids asked names/addresses or not, anonymity
• you may take one candy
• DV: steal candy or take moneys
• 500 took more candy/money
• about 25% alone, anonymous took, about 60% group anonymous took
• about 10% alone, individuated, took, about 22%, group individuated took

Can deindividuation unleash behavior?

Gergen: 8 strangers in a room for an hour.

IV: dark room v. lighted room

Dark

• 90% touched, 50%hugged, some kisses
• more self exposure, talked about intense issues
• enjoyed
• became more connected

Lighted

• no touching
• normal conversation
• didn't enjoy

student talked about a restaurant called the cave, where its really really dark and people steal others food etc. I couldn't find one here, but I found an article about one in london - Complete darkness


Perhaps deindividuation leads us to obey situational norms
negative norms> - behavior
+ norms> +behavior


Johnson and Downing

• IV: P's wear KKK hood or surgical scrubs, some anonymous, some not
• DV: shock level set for peer who fails task
• KKK-more shock
• Scrubs- less shock
• anonymity adds to higher extreme, anonymity in KKK increase aggression and in scrubs, decrease aggression

10-31 LAB
Antecedents of groupthink:

1. fear of failure
2. recent failure
3. ambiguous situation
4. limited info
   

symptoms of groupthink: when more are present, more likely to be groupthink, more likely to make bad decision

1. illusion of invulnerability
2. close mindedness
3. self censorship
4. direct pressure
5. mind guarding
6. illusion of unanimity
7. ?group cohesivness?
8. ?

to avoid groupthink:

1. open environment
2. avoid insulation
3. all be critical evaluators
4. authority avoid being directive
   

= reasonable decision
This happened with JFK


defective decision making!



Opposite of deindividuation: Self Awareness
When folks focus attn on themselves, evaluate and compare behavior to internal standards and values
Beamer: Trick or treating

• IV:mirror or not
• DV, steal
• mirror: 12%steal
• no mirror : 34% steal

Diener and Wallbom: cheating

• stop when timer goes off
• IV:mirror or not
• DV:taking more time=cheating
• mirror : 7%cheat
• no mirror 71% cheat

Attraction and close relationships
3 facts


1. proximity matters /propinquity

• more friends if you live near a mailbox
  
• physical: ~~~
• functional:~~~

2.physical attractiveness matters

• and judgments about attractive folks

3.similarity matters

• If you don't want commitment, you'll go for someone different than you, fling
• opposites attract usually means fling

Theories of attraction & Love
1. Balance theory
Heider(who is also the father of attribution) &Newcomb(who also did bennington study):
We like to organize our thought about people & objects in a way that is harmonious, consistent or balanced - Imbalance is Unpleasant
Triangles:









Quiz 11: Prosocial Behavior

According to the evolutionary psychology notion of kin selection, Bob is most likely to help:
his step-sister Sally.
his cousin Herbert.
his brother Ralph.
his best friend Randall.
answer:

Every morning at the bus stop, Carlos encounters an old woman begging for change. She is clearly hungry and alone. Because Carlos feels very bad for this woman and can imagine himself in her shoes, he makes a point of giving her some change each morning that he sees her. Which theoretical approach best explains Carlos’ behavior?

empathy-altruism hypothesis
kin selection
norm of reciprocity
social-exchange theory

A woman has just been in a car accident and needs someone to get her out of her car. A man has AIDS and needs someone to take him to the hospital for ongoing treatments. According to the research on gender differences in prosocial behavior, which of the following is most likely to be true

John and Karen are equally likely to help both the woman and the man.
John is more likely to help the woman; Karen is more likely to help the man.
John is more likely to help both the man and the woman.
John is more likely to help the man; Karen is more likely to help the woman.


Gillian is sitting in a crowded coffee shop when she hears the squeal of brakes and the crash of metal-on-metal, She looks around and notices that all the other customers remain engrossed in their conversations. Because these cool and calm responses _____, Gillian will be _____.

provide normative cues; more likely to go outside to help
reduce Gillian’ s sense of personal responsibility; less likely to go outside to help
increase pluralistic ignorance; less likely to assume it’s an emergency situation
decrease evaluation apprehension; more likely to go outside to help

Which of the following best summarizes the social exchange theory approach to helping?
Helping is an instinctive reaction to promote the welfare of those genetically similar to us.
The rewards of helping often outweigh the costs, so helping is in our self-interest.
We will be most likely to help when it will serve to protect our genes and those of our kin.
Under some conditions, powerful feelings of empathy and compassion for the victim prompt selfless giving.

jeopardy notes Lab 11-14
Contingency Theory
2 types of leaders
1.relationship oriented

• best when control is moderate
• more concentrated on workers feelings etc

2.task oriented

• get the job dne
• best when control is low or high

Attachment Theory, Lab

• -attachment style generally comes from mother-strain theory (moms leave child in room to test how they react)
  

1)secure attachment-60% of children

• -child is uneasy when mom leaves room but is stable when mom comes back and seeks comfort from mom
  

2) avoidant attachment

• -generally doesn't care if mom is there or not
  

3) anxious/ambivalent

• -child is extremely upset when mom leaves and inconsolable to a certain degree when mom returns-difficult to comfort
  

*there is mixed support for gender differences in this theory